For nearly thirty centuries, ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom to the conquests of the New Kingdom, ancient Egypt’s majesty has long enchanted scientists, historians, and the general public alike.
Geography
At over 4,100 miles, the Nile River is the longest river in the world. It played a major role in shaping the lives and society of ancient Egypt, providing the ancient Egyptians with food, transportation, natural resources, and more.
The Nile flows north through Egypt and into the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions: Upper Egypt, to the south, and Lower Egypt, to the north. This is because the names come from the southward flow of the Nile River.
The ancient Egyptians thought of Egypt as being divided into two lands: the ‘black land’ and the ‘red land’.
The ‘black land’ referred to the rich, fertile soil on the banks of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians used this land for growing their crops. This was the only land in Egypt that could be farmed because a layer of rich, black silt was deposited there every year after the annual flooding of the Nile River.
The ‘red land’ referred to the barren desert that surrounded Egypt on either side. These deserts shielded ancient Egypt from neighboring countries and invading armies. They also provided the ancient Egyptians with a plentiful source of precious metals and semi-precious stones.
History
Early Dynastic Period | c. 3150-c. 2686 BCE
The Early Dynastic Period saw the development of the foundations of ancient Egyptian society (including the all-important ideology of kingship), the beginnings of hieroglyphics, and the unification of the Lower and Upper Egypt under the pharaoh Narmer (also known as Menes). Narmer also founded the capital of ancient Egypt at Memphis in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The city would grow to become a great metropolis and important trade center that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. Thus, Narmer became the first king of the first Egyptian dynasty.
During the Early Dynastic Period, as with all other periods, the vast majority of Egyptians were farmers living in small villages. The cultivation of crops (largely wheat and barley) formed the base of Egyptian economics. The annual flooding of the Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization for each harvest; after the floodwaters receded, farmers sowed the wheat and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.
Old Kingdom | c. 2,686–2,181 BCE
The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2,630 BCE, King Djoser asked architect Imhotep to design a burial chamber for him. What Imhotep built was the world’s first major stone monument: the Step Pyramid. Pyramid construction would reach its height with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza for Khufu, on the outskirts of Cairo; the pyramid was later designated by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors.
During the third and fourth dynasties, the people of Egypt saw a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaoh held absolute power over the land and its resources, providing a strong central government; the kingdom faced no threat of invasion from neighboring lands; and a series of highly successful military conquests in countries such as Nubia and Libya contributed to Egypt’s considerable wealth. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, however, that wealth was steadily depleted, due in large part to the huge cost of building pyramids. To make matters worse, the increasing influence of the priesthood and the nobility began to challenge the absolute power of the pharaoh. After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.
Middle Kingdom | c. 2,040–1,786 BCE
The seventh and eighth dynasties of the Middle Kingdom consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until c. 2,160 BCE, when the central authority was completely dissolved. This led to civil war between provincial governors that was further exacerbated by Bedouin invasions, as well as by widespread famine and disease.
Two kingdoms emerged from this turbulent period: one was a line of seventeen rulers (the ninth and tenth dynasties) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while the other was a family of rulers that arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2,055 BCE, the Theban prince Mentuhotep was able to bring down Heracleopolis and reunite Egypt, ending the First Intermediate Period and marking the beginning of the 11th dynasty.
The 13th dynasty was yet another chaotic period in Egyptian history; during this time, a rapid sequence of pharaohs attempted (unsuccessfully) to consolidate power. As a result, during the Second Intermediate Period, Egypt was again divided into several competing spheres of influence. The official royal court and seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (the 14th), centered on the city of Xois in the Nile delta, appears to have existed at the same time.
In c. 1,650 BCE, foreign rulers called the Hyksos seized control of Egypt. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty preserved many of the existing Egyptian traditions and ruled concurrently with the native Theban rulers of the 17th dynasty, who retained control over most of southern Egypt. The 16th dynasty is variously believed to be made up of either Theban or Hyksos rulers. However, the two groups eventually came into conflict, and the Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1,570 BCE, driving them out of Egypt.
New Kingdom | c. 1,570–1,090 BCE
Under the rule of Ahmose I, the first pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was reunited once more. During this period, Egypt regained control over Nubia and launched a series of military campaigns in Palestine. The country went on to establish one of the world’s greatest empires, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River. In addition to powerful pharaohs such as Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, and Amenhotep III, the New Kingdom was notable for female rulers such as Queen Hatshepsut, who was as a regent for her young stepson (who later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but soon wielded all the powers of a pharaoh. Her reign was characterized by decreased warfare, increased trade, and relative economic prosperity.
The highly controversial Amenhotep IV of the late 18th dynasty enforced the exclusive worship of the sun-god Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton, Amenhotep IV built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes, and the Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period, saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire as a major world power.
All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were buried in deep tombs cut from rock in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site located on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of these tombs were raided and destroyed, except for that of Tutankhamen. However, the mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III, was also well preserved, indicating the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III, however, were less successful. Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria and suffered from foreign invasions (most notably by the Libyans). At the same time, its wealth was being slowly but surely exahusted.
The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw drastic changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs led to the resurgence of local officials. Meanwhile, foreigners from Libya and Nubia seized power for themselves. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 BCE with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded and settled in Egypt during the late 20th dynasty. Many local rulers were essentially independent during this period, and the 23rd and 24th dynasties are poorly documented.
In the eighth century BCE, Nubian pharaohs began to establish their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the expanding Assyrian empire. In 671 BCE, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon drove the Kushite ruler Taharka out of Memphis and laid waste to the city; then, he appointed his own rulers. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun in a desperate but ultimately unsuccessful grab for power.
Decline and Downfall | c. 664-332 BCE
The Saite dynasty, which began with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 BCE, Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, upon which Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers such as Darius ruled the country much as native Egyptian pharaohs did, supporting Egypt’s religious cults and undertaking the construction of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes, however, led to increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 BCE, beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (the 28th and 30th dynasties).
In the mid-fourth century BCE, the Persians once again invaded Egypt, reinstating their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 BCE. A decade later, Alexander the Great defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, starting with Alexander’s general Ptolemy. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Augustus in 31 BCE. Six centuries of rule by the Romans followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and its provinces, including Egypt. The Arabs’ conquest of Egypt in the seventh century CE and the introduction of Islam marked the end of ancient Egyptian culture proper.
Government
Ancient Egyptian government is best described as a theocratic monarchy. The pharaoh, who was believed by the Egyptians to be a god, was the absolute monarch of the country and wielded complete control of the land and all its resources. The king was the supreme military commander as well as head of the government. He relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king’s representative and coordinated land surveys, managed the treasury, and oversaw building projects, among other duties.
Economy
As with all river valley civilizations, the economy of ancient Egypt revolved almost entirely around agriculture. The regular flooding of the Nile enabled the Egyptian to grow a surplus of crops, which was the source of most of the kingdom’s wealth.
Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt, as taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.
The economy of ancient Egypt was centrally organized and strictly controlled. The Egyptians used a type of money-barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly three ounces of copper or silver. Workers were paid in grain according to their occupation. Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.
Culture
Society
Egyptian society was highly stratified. The lower class, made up of farmers and laborers, constituted the bulk of the population. Merchants and artisans made up the middle class. Ranking just above them were wealthy landowners, government officials, priests, and army commanders. At the top was the king, queen, and royal family.
In later Egyptian history, slavery became a widespread source of labor. Slaves were usually captives from foreign wars and were made to serve in the homes of the rich or labor in the gold mines of Upper Egypt.
Social classes in ancient Egypt were not rigid. Lower- and middle-class Egyptians could attain higher status through marriage or professional success. Even slaves could hope to earn their freedom as a reward for their service. For the highest positions in ancient Egyptian society, however, literacy was paramount. Many careers were open in the army, the royal treasury, the priesthood, and the king’s court to someone with knowledge of hieroglyphics.
As in Mesopotamia, women in Egypt held many of the same rights as men. For example, a wealthy or middle-class woman could own and trade property, propose marriage or seek divorce, establish commercial enterprises, and own land.
Religion
Religion was an integral part of ancient Egyptian culture, permeating almost every aspect of the Egyptians’ daily life. Ancient Egyptian mythology is noted for its large pantheon of deities and complex religious rituals.
Each deity in the Egyptian pantheon played a role in maintaining peace and harmony in the universe. Some gods and goddesses took part in the creation of the world, and others brought the flooding of the Nile every year; some offered protection, and some took care of the souls of the deceased. Others were either local tutelary gods who represented towns, or minor gods who represented plants or animals. The ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to recognize and worship these deities to ensure that life continued smoothly.
One of the defining characteristics of ancient Egyptian religion is the elaborate rituals accompanying funerals. It was believed that after death, pure souls would live forever in the beautiful Other World. People of all classes planned for their burials to ensure that they reached the afterlife safely. Members of the royal family built great tombs, such as the pyramids, and other Egyptians built smaller tombs. Royal and elite Egyptians’ bodies were preserved by mummification, a long and laborious process that involved embalming and drying the corpse to prevent decay.
Science and technology
Science
Many ancient Egyptian inventions arose from practical needs. For example, in order to keep track of the yearly floods and plan their planting season accordingly, the Egyptians devised a calendar. To do this, they calculated the number of days between one rising of Sirius and the next as 365 days a solar year. They then divided this year into 12 months of 30 days each and added five days for holidays and feasting. This calendar was so precise that it fell short of the true solar year by only six hours.
Mathematics
The Egyptians developed a system of written numbers for performing basic arithmetic operations, used to assess and collect taxes. Scribes used an early form of geometry to survey and reset property boundaries after the annual floods. Mathematical knowledge helped Egypt’s architects and engineers make precise, accurate measurements to construct their pyramids and palaces. Egyptian architects were the first to use stone columns for structural support.
Medicine
Egyptian medicine was renowned throughout the ancient world. Egyptian doctors knew how to check a person’s heart rate by feeling for a pulse in different parts of the body. They were able to set broken bones with splints and had effective treatments for wounds and sickness. They even used surgical techniques to treat some conditions.
Hieroglyphics
The development of writing was key to the growth of Egyptian civilization. Simple pictographs were the earliest form of writing in Egypt, but scribes soon developed a more flexible writing system called hieroglyphics. This term comes from the Greek words hieros and gluph, meaning “sacred carving.”
Early hieroglyphics were originally logographic, meaning that each symbol represented a concept. Over time, however, the system became more phonographic, where the spelling of a word reflected the pronunciation.
The first hieroglyphs were written on stone and clay, as in Mesopotamia. But the Egyptians soon invented a far superior writing surface: papyrus. Papyrus was made from papyrus reeds, which grew in the marshy delta. The Egyptians split the reeds into narrow strips, arranged them crosswise in two layers, moistened them with water, and then crushed them. As the papyrus dried, the plant’s sap glued the strips together into a thin, papery sheet.
Legacy
Among the many achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization are the sophisticated quarrying, land surveying, and construction techniques necessary for the construction of pyramids and temples; a highly developed system of mathematics; a practical and effective system of medicine; and complex irrigation systems and innovative agricultural production techniques. Egyptian art and architecture were widely copied by other Western civilization, and its artifacts, antiquities, and monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of academics and the general public for centuries.
Bibliography
Ancient Egypt | The British Museum
Exploring River Valley Civilizations 